Keywords
COVID-19
respiratory protection
How to Cite
Abstract
Currently observed intensive spread of COVID-19 suggests the virus may be more airborne than previously assumed and may be also spread by air/aerosol, not only by droplet, at a distance greater than the recommended as safe. The paper presents current recommendations and arguments indicating the importance of respiratory protection during COVID-19 pandemic. The use of certified respirators allows the protection of critical human resources and more effective protection of medical personnel. The widespread and skillful use of improvised personal face coverings along with other elements of the sanitary regime (isolation, hand hygiene) allows achieving a synergistic effect of limiting the spread of the virus in society.
References
Lindsley WG, Blachere FM, Thewlis RE, et al. Measurements of airborne influenza virus in aerosol particles from human coughs. PLoS ONE 2010; 5:e15100. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0015100.
Wong BCK, Lee N, Li Y et al. Possible role of aerosol transmission in a hospital outbreak of influenza. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 51:1176-1183.
Bielawska-Drózd A, Michalski A, Cieślik P, Makowski P, Kocik J. Metody diagnostyki laboratoryjnej COVID-19. Wiedza Medyczna 2020; 1-9.
EN 149:2001+A1:2009 Respiratory protective devices. Filtering half masks to protect against particles. Requirements, testing, marking.
EN 143:2000 Respiratory protective devices. Particle filters. Requirements, testing, marking.
Advice on the use of masks in the community, during home care and in health care settings in the context of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) outbreak WHO 2020 CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Guidance for wearing and removing personal protective equipment in healthcare settings for the care of patients with suspected or confirmed COVID-19. Stockholm: ECDC 2020.
MacIntyre CR, Chughtai AA, Rahman B, et al. The efficacy of medical masks and respirators against respiratory infection in healthcare workers. Influenza Other Respi Viruses 2017; 11:511-517. https://doi.org/10.1111/irv.12474.
Aiello AE, Murray GF, Perez V, et al. Mask use, hand hygiene, and seasonal influenza – like illness among young adults: a randomized intervention trial. J Infect Dis 2010; 201:491-498.
MacIntyre CR, Cauchemez S, Dwyer DE et al. Face mask use and control of respiratory virus transmission in households. Emerg Infect Dis 2009; 15:233-241.
Jefferson T, Del Mar CB, Dooley L, Ferroni E, Al-Ansary LA, Bawazeer GA, van Driel, ML, Nair S, Jones MA, Thorning S, Conly JM, Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews 2011 (7), CD006207. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD006207.pub4.
Bin-Reza F, Lopez Chavarrias V, Nicoll A, Chamberland ME. The use of masks and respirators to prevent transmission of influenza: a systematic review of the scientific evidence. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2012; 6(4):257-267. DOI:10.1111/j.1750-2659.2011.00307.x
Phin NF, Rylands A, Allan J, Edwards C, Enstone JE, Nguyen-Van-Tam J. Personal protective equipment in an influenza pandemic: a UK simulation exercise. J Hosp Infect 2009; 71:15-21.
Srinivasan A, Perl TM. Respiratory protection against influenza. JAMA 2009 Nov 4; 302(17):1903-4. DOI:10.1001/jama.2009.1494. Epub 2009 Oct 1. PubMed PMID: 19797473.
Yan J, Guha S, Hariharan P, Myers M, Modeling the Effectiveness of Respiratory Protective Devices in Reducing Influenza Outbreak. Risk Analysis, 39:647-661. DOI:10.1111/risa.13181.
van Doremalen N, Bushmaker T, Morris DH, et al. Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1 [published online ahead of print, 2020 Mar 17]. N Engl J Med 2020; 10.1056/NEJMc2004973. DOI:10.1056/NEJMc2004973.
Blachere FM, Lindsley WG, Pearce TA, et al. Measurement of airborne influenza virus in a hospital emergency department. Clin Infec Dis. 2009; 48:438-40.
Stelzer-Braid S, Oliver BG, Blazey AJ et al. Exhalation of respiratory viruses by breathing, talking and coughing. Journal of Medical Virology. 2009; 81:1674-1679.
Tellier R. Aerosol transmission of influenza A virus: a review of new studies. J. R. Soc. Interface 2009, 6 (Suppl 6): S783-S790.
Yu ITS, Wong TW, Chiu, et al. Temporal-spatial analysis of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome among hospital inpatients. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 40:1237-1243.
Zhongneng Xu, Can the novel coronavirus transmit via RNAs without protein capsids? DOI:10.31219/osf.io/4nj6e – dane nie recenzowane.
World Health Organization. (2020). Rational use of personal protective equipment for coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and considerations during severe shortages: interim guidance, 6 April 2020. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/331695. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
Coulliette A, Perry K, Edwards J, Noble-Wang J. Persistence of the 2009 Pandemic Influenza A (H1N1) Virus on N95 Respirators. Appl Environ Microbiol 79(7): 2148-2155 (2013).
Viscusi D, Bergman M, Elmer B, Shaffer R. Evaluation of Five Decontamination Methods for Filtering Facepiece Respirators. Ann Occup Hyg. https://doi.org/10.1093/annhyg/mep070.
Bergman MS, Viscusi DJ, Heimbuch BK, Wander JD, Sambol AR, Shaffer RE. Evaluation of multiple (3-cycle) decontamination processing for filtering facepiece respirators. J Eng Fiber Fab, 5(4), 155892501000500405. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/155892501000500405.
Final Report for the Bioquell Hydrogen Peroxide Vapor (HPV) Decontamination for Reuse of N95 Respirators. Prepared by Battelle Columbus, Ohio. Prepared under Contract No. HHSF223201400098C. Study Number 3245. Prepared for the FDA. July 2016. Accessed, March 26, 2020 from https://www.fda.gov/media/136386/download.
Reuse of FFP2 masks 2020. The Dutch National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM National Institute for Public Health and the Environment). https://www.rivm.nl/en/documenten/reuse-of-ffp2-masks.
Lindsley WG, Martin SB Jr, Thewlis RE, Sarkisian K, Nwoko JO, Mead KR, Noti JD. Effects of Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation (UVGI) on N95 Respirator Filtration Performance and Structural Integrity. J Occup Environ Hyg 12(8): 509-17. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25806411.
Mills D, Harnish DA, Lawrence C, Sandoval-Powers M, Heimbuch BK. Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation of influenza contaminated N95 filtering facepiece respirators. American Journal of Infection Control, 46(7), e49-e55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2018.02.018.
Heimbuch BK, Harnish D. Research to Mitigate a Shortage of Respiratory Protection Devices During Public Health Emergencies. Applied Research Associates. https://www.ara.com/sites/default/files/MitigateShortageofRespiratoryProtectionDevices.pdf.
Eninger RM, Adhikari A, Reponen T, Grinshpun SA. Differentiating Between Physical and Viable Penetrations When Challenging Respirator Filters with Bioaerosols. Clean 2008; 36(7), 615-621.
Wu C-Y, Lee J-H, Riemenschneider L, Theodore AD. Evaluation of the performance of iodine-treated biocide filters challenged with bacterial spores and viruses. Air Force Research Laboratory Report, AFRL-RX-TY-TR-2008-4511, 2008.
Qian Y, Willeke K, Grinshpun SA, Donnelly J. Performance of N95 respirators: reaerosolization of bacteria and solid particles. Am. Ind. Hyg Assoc. J. 1997, 58:876-880.
Casanova L, Rutala WA, Weber DJ, Sobsey MD. Coronavirus survival on healthcare personal protective equipment. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 31(5): 560-561 (2010).
Ong SWX, Tan Y-K, Chia P-Y, et al. Air, Surface Environmental, and Personal Protective Equipment Contamination by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) From a Symptomatic Patient. JAMA. Published online March 04, 2020. DOI:10.1001/jama.2020.3227.
Ong S, Tan Y, Sutjipto S, Chia P, Young B, Gum M, Ng O. Absence of contamination of personal protective equipment (PPE) by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 1-6. DOI:10.1017/ice.2020.91.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Hygiene (NIOSH) NIOSH Guide to the Selection and Use of Particulate Respirators Certified Under 42 CFR 84. Cincinnati, Ohio, USA: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Hygiene (NIOSH); 1996. (DHHS (NIOSH) Publication no. 96-101).
Coia JE, Ritchie L, Adisesh A, et al. Guidance on the use of respiratory and facial protection equipment. Journal of Hospital Infection. 2013;85(3):170-182. DOI:10.1016/j.jhin. 2013.06.020.
Anfinrud P, Bax CE, Stadnytskyi V, Bax A, Could SARS- -CoV-2 be transmitted via speech droplets? medRxiv 2020.04.02.20051177; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04. 02.200511.
Oberg T, Brosseau L. Surgical mask filter and fit performance. American Journal of Infection Control 2008; 36(4):276-282.
MacIntyre CR, Wang Q, Rahman B, et al. Efficacy of face masks and respirators in preventing upper respiratory tract bacterial colonization and co-infection in hospital healthcare workers. Preventive Medicine. 2014; 62:1-7.
Lee S-A, Grinshpun SA, Reponen T. Respiratory performance offered by N95 respirators and surgical masks: human subject evaluation with NaCl aerosol representing bacterial and viral particle size range. Annals of Occupational Hygiene. 2008; 52(3):177-185. DOI:10.1093/annhyg/men005.
Loeb M, Dafoe N, Mahony J, et al. Surgical mask vs N95 respirator for preventing influenza among health care workers: a randomized trial. The Journal of the American Medical Association. 2009; 302(17):1865-1871. DOI:10.1001/jama. 2009.1466.
Lee S-A, Hwang D-C, Li H-Y, et al. Particle Size-Selective Assessment of Protection of European Standard FFP Respirators and Surgical Masks against Particles-Tested with Human Subjects. J Healthc Eng. 2016; 2016:8572493. DOI:10.1155/2016/8572493.
Davies A, Thompson KA, Giri K, Kafatos G, Walker J, Bennett A. Testing the efficacy of homemade masks: would they protect in an influenza pandemic? Disaster Med Public Health Prep 2013 Aug; 7(4):413-8. DOI:10.1017/dmp.2013.43.
Klompas M, Morris CA, Sinclair J, Pearson M, Shenoy ES. Universal Masking in Hospitals in the Covid-19 Era [published online ahead of print, 2020 Apr 1]. N Engl J Med. 2020;10.1056/NEJMp2006372. DOI:10.1056/NEJMp2006372.