Abstract
Obesity and mental disorders belong to the most alarming health concerns in the modern era, and when they co-occur, they can pose a significant threat to patients' overall health and well-being. It has been shown that obesity increases the risk of developing psychiatric conditions, and individuals with mental illness are more likely to become obese. The relationship between psychiatric illness and weight is complex and involves multiple factors, including neurobiological, psycking it challenging for individuals to follow a healthy lifestyle. Another undisputable association between obesity and mental illness is the iatrogenic weight gain caused by psychopharmacological treatment. Managing weight in individuals with mental illness and obesity should involve prescribing weight-neutral medications for managing psychiatric symptoms, evaluation of associated comorbidities and metabolic risk factors, utilization of behavioral weight management techniques, and potentially adding weight loss pharmacotherapy if needed.
References
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22. Afzal M, Siddiqi N, Ahmad B, et al. Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity in People With Severe Mental Illness: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front Endocrinol 2021. DOI:10.3389/fendo.2021.769309
23. Luppino FS, de Wit LM, Bouvy PF, et al. Overweight, Obesity, and Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Longitudinal Studies. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2010; 67 (3): 220. DOI:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.2
24. McElroy SL, Crow S, Blom TJ, et al. Clinical features of bipolar spectrum with binge eating behaviour. J Affect Disord 2016; 201: 95-98. DOI:10.1016/j.jad.2016.05.003
25. Bonnet F, Irving K, Terra JL, et al. Anxiety and depression are associated with unhealthy lifestyle in patients at risk of cardiovascular disease. Atherosclerosis 2005; 178 (2): 339-344. DOI:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2004.08.035
26. Calkin C, van de Velde C, Růžičková M, et al. Can body mass index help predict outcome in patients with bipolar disorder? Bipolar Disord 2009; 11 (6): 650-656. DOI:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2009.00730.x
27. Burke HM, Davis MC, Otte C, et al. Depression and cortisol responses to psychological stress: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2005; 30 (9): 846-856. DOI:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.02.010
28. Kloiber S, Ising M, Reppermund S, et al. Overweight and Obesity Affect Treatment Response in Major Depression. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 62 (4): 321-326. DOI:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.10.001
29. Oud MJ, Meyboom-de Jong B. Somatic diseases in patients with schizophrenia in general practice: their prevalence and health care. BMC Fam Pract 2009; 10:32. DOI:10.1186/1471-2296-10-32
30. Annamalai A, Kosir U, Tek C. Prevalence of obesity and diabetes in patients with schizophrenia. World J Diabetes 2017: 390-396. DOI:10.4239/wjd.v8.i8.390
31. Dieset I, Andreassen OA, Haukvik UK. Somatic Comorbidity in Schizophrenia: Some Possible Biological Mechanisms Across the Life Span. Schizophr Bull;c42c(6):c1316-1319. DOI:10.1093/schbul/sbw028
32. Ryan MCM, Flanagan S, Kinsella U, et al. The effects of atypical antipsychotics on visceral fat distribution in first episode, drug-naive patients with schizophrenia. Life Sci 2004; 74 (16): 1999-2008. DOI:10.1016/j.lfs.2003.08.044
33. Ryan MCM, Collins P, Thakore JH. Impaired Fasting Glucose Tolerance in First-Episode, Drug-Naive Patients With Schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160 (2): 284-289. DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.2.284
34. Noto C, Ota VK, Santoro ML, et al. Depression, Cytokine, and Cytokine by Treatment Interactions Modulate Gene Expression in Antipsychotic Naïve First Episode Psychosis. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 53 (8): 5701-5709. DOI:10.1007/s12035-015-9489-3
35. Klöting N, Blüher M. Adipocyte dysfunction, inflammation and metabolic syndrome. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2014; 15 (4): 277-287. DOI: 10.1007/s11154-014-9301-0
36. Andreassen OA, Djurovic S, Thompson WK, et al. Improved Detection of Common Variants Associated with Schizophrenia by Leveraging Pleiotropy with Cardiovascular-Disease Risk Factors. Am J Hum Genet 2013; 92 (2): 197-209. DOI:10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.01.001
37. Cortese S, Moreira-Maia CR, St. Fleur D, et al. Association Between ADHD and Obesity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Am J Psychiatry 2016; 173 (1): 34-43. DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15020266
38. Mather AA, Cox BJ, Enns MW, et al. Associations of obesity with psychiatric disorders and suicidal behaviors in a nationally representative sample. J Psychosom Res 2009; 66 (4): 277-285. DOI:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.09.008
39. Bak M, Fransen A, Janssen J, et al. Almost All Antipsychotics Result in Weight Gain: A Meta-Analysis. PLoS One 2014; 9 (4). DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0094112
40. Allison D, Casey DE. Antipsychotic-induced weight gain: A review of the literature. J Clin Psychiatry 2001; 62 Suppl 7: 22-31.
41. Gafoor R, Booth HP, Gulliford MC. Antidepressant utilisation and incidence of weight gain during 10 years’ follow-up: population based cohort study. BMJ 2018 DOI:10.1136/bmj.k1951.
42. Uguz F, Sahingoz M, Gungor B, et al. Weight gain and associated factors in patients using newer antidepressant drugs. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2015; 37 (1): 46-48. DOI:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2014.10.011
43. Shi Z, Atlantis E, Taylor AW, et al. SSRI antidepressant use potentiates weight gain in the context of unhealthy lifestyles: results from a 4-year Australian follow-up study. BMJ Open 2017; 7 (8). DOI:10.1136/bmjopen-2017-016224
44. Darga L, Carroll-Michals L, Botsford S, et al. Fluoxetine’s effect on weight loss in obese subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 54 (2): 321-325. DOI:10.1093/ajcn/54.2.321
45. Domecq JP, Prutsky G, Leppin A, et al. Drugs Commonly Associated With Weight Change: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015 ; 100 (2): 363-370. DOI:10.1210/jc.2014-3421
46. Van Reedt Dortland AKB, Giltay EJ, Van Veen T, et al. Metabolic syndrome abnormalities are associated with severity of anxiety and depression and with tricyclic antidepressant use: Metabolic syndrome, anxiety and depression. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2009; 122 (1): 30-39. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2010.01565.x
47. Jain AK, Kaplan RA, Gadde KM, et al. Bupropion SR vs. Placebo for Weight Loss in Obese Patients with Depressive Symptoms. Obes Res 2002; 10 (10): 1049-1056. DOI:10.1038/oby.2002.142
48. Chengappa KNR, Chalasani L, Brar JS, et al. Changes in body weight and body mass index among psychiatric patients receiving lithium, valproate, or topiramate: An open-label, nonrandomized chart review. Clin Ther 2002; 24 (10): 1576-1584. DOI:10.1016/s0149-2918(02)80061-3
49. Zhuo C, Xu Y, Liu S, et al. Topiramate and Metformin Are Effective Add-On Treatments in Controlling Antipsychotic-Induced Weight Gain: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9: 1393. DOI:10.3389/fphar.2018.01393
50. Siskind D, Hahn M, Correll CU, et al. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists for antipsychotic-associated cardio-metabolic risk factors: A systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis. Diabetes Obes Metab 2019; 21 (2): 293-302. DOI:10.1111/dom.13522
51. Grilo CM, Masheb RM, Wilson GT, et al. Cognitive–behavioral therapy, behavioral weight loss, and sequential treatment for obese patients with binge-eating disorder: A randomized controlled trial. J Consult Clin Psychol 2011; 79 (5): 675-685. DOI:10.1037/a0025049
2. Ansari S, Haboubi H, Haboubi N. Adult obesity complications: challenges and clinical impact. Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab 2020; DOI:10.1177/2042018820934955
3. De Hert M, Correll CU, Bobes J et al. Physical illness in patients with severe mental disorders. I. Prevalence, impact of medications and disparities in health care. World Psychiatry 2011; 10 (1): 52–77. DOI:10.1002/j.2051-5545.2011.tb00014.x
4. Dudek D, Wasik A, Gorostowicz A, et al. Otyłość i zaburzenia psychiczne. In: Olszanecka-Glinianowicz M, editor. Obesitologia kliniczna. In α-medica press; 2021. p. 451-470
5. Qian J, Wu Y, Liu F, et al. An update on the prevalence of eating disorders in the general population: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eat Weight Disord - Stud Anorex Bulim Obes 2022; 27 (2): 415-428. DOI:10.1007/s40519-021-01162-z
6. Hudson JI, Hiripi E, Pope HG, et al. The Prevalence and Correlates of Eating Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 61 (3): 348-358 DOI:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.040
7. Keski-Rahkonen A. Epidemiology of binge eating disorder: prevalence, course, comorbidity, and risk factors. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2021; 34 (6): 525-531 DOI:10.1097/YCO.0000000000000750
8. Ketata W, Aloulou J, Charfi N, et al. Hyperphagie boulimique et obésité : aspects épidémiologiques, cliniques et psychopathologiques. Étude d’une population d’obèses à Sfax (Tunisie). Ann Endocrinol 2009; 70 (6): 462-467. DOI:10.1016/j.ando.2009.07.002
9. Allison KC, Lundgren JD, O’Reardon JP, et al. Proposed diagnostic criteria for night eating syndrome. Int J Eat Disord 2010; 43 (3): 241-247. DOI:10.1002/eat.20693
10. Sutcu C, Pamuk G, Ongel K. Evaluation of night eating syndrome in individuals with and without obesity. Endokrynol Pol 2021; 72 (5): 539-544. DOI:10.5603/EP.a2021.0046
11. Hauck C, Cook B, Ellrott T. Food addiction, eating addiction and eating disorders. Proc Nutr Soc 2020; 79 (1): 103-112. DOI:10.1017/S0029665119001162
12. Pedram P, Wadden D, Amini P, et al. Food Addiction: Its Prevalence and Significant Association with Obesity in the General Population. PLoS One 2013; 8 (9) DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0074832
13. Reichenberger J, Schnepper R, Arend AK, et al. Emotional eating in healthy individuals and patients with an eating disorder: evidence from psychometric, experimental and naturalistic studies. Proc Nutr Soc 2020; 79 (3): 290-299 DOI:10.1017/S0029665120007004
14. Tess BH, Maximiano-Ferreira L, Pajecki D, et al. Bariatric surgery and binge eating disorder: should surgeons care about it? A literature review of prevalence and assessment tools. Arq Gastroenterol 2019; 56 (1): 55-60. DOI:10.1590/S0004-2803.201900000-10
15. Allison KC, Wadden TA, Sarwer DB, et al. Night Eating Syndrome and Binge Eating Disorder among Persons Seeking Bariatric Surgery: Prevalence and Related Features. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2006; 14 Suppl 2: 77S-82S. DOI:10.1038/oby.2006.286
16. Ivezaj V, Wiedemann AA, Grilo CM. Food addiction and bariatric surgery: a systematic review of the literature. Obes Rev 2017; 18 (12): 1386-1397. DOI:10.1111/obr.12600
17. Niego SH, Kofman MD, Weiss JJ, et al. A. Binge eating in the bariatric surgery population: A review of the literature. Int J Eat Disord 2007; 40 (4): 349-359. DOI:10.1002/eat.20376
18. Olszanecka-Glinianowicz M, Dudek D, Filipiak KJ, et al. Treatment of overweight and obesity during and after a pandemic. Let’s not wait for the development of complications – new guidelines for doctors. Arter Hypertens 2020; 24 (3): 93–105. DOI:10.5603/AH.a2020.0019
19. Malesza M. The adaptation of the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire – psychometric properties in a polish sample. Curr Psychol 2021; 40 (6): 3006-3013. DOI:10.1007/s12144-019-00186-0
20. Dzielska A, Mazur J, Malkowska-Szkutnik A, et al. Adaptacja polskiej wersji kwestionariusza Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ-13) wśród młodzieży szkolnej w badaniach populacyjnych [Adaptation of the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ-13) for school-aged adolescents in a population study]. Probl Hig Epidemiol 2009; 90: 362-369. DOI:10.5114/ain.2020.104814
21. Koziarska-Rościszewska M, Mizgała E, Jóźwiak J, et al. Zasady postępowania w nadwadze i otyłości w praktyce lekarza rodzinnego. Wytyczne Kolegium Lekarzy Rodzinnych w Polsce, Polskiego Towarzystwa Medycyny Rodzinnej oraz Polskiego Towarzystwa Badań nad Otyłością. Zalecane przez Konsultanta Krajowego w dziedzinie Medycyny Rodzinnej. Lekarz Rodzinny 2017, Kraków: Medycyna Praktyczna. ISSN 1426-2088
22. Afzal M, Siddiqi N, Ahmad B, et al. Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity in People With Severe Mental Illness: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front Endocrinol 2021. DOI:10.3389/fendo.2021.769309
23. Luppino FS, de Wit LM, Bouvy PF, et al. Overweight, Obesity, and Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Longitudinal Studies. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2010; 67 (3): 220. DOI:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.2
24. McElroy SL, Crow S, Blom TJ, et al. Clinical features of bipolar spectrum with binge eating behaviour. J Affect Disord 2016; 201: 95-98. DOI:10.1016/j.jad.2016.05.003
25. Bonnet F, Irving K, Terra JL, et al. Anxiety and depression are associated with unhealthy lifestyle in patients at risk of cardiovascular disease. Atherosclerosis 2005; 178 (2): 339-344. DOI:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2004.08.035
26. Calkin C, van de Velde C, Růžičková M, et al. Can body mass index help predict outcome in patients with bipolar disorder? Bipolar Disord 2009; 11 (6): 650-656. DOI:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2009.00730.x
27. Burke HM, Davis MC, Otte C, et al. Depression and cortisol responses to psychological stress: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2005; 30 (9): 846-856. DOI:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.02.010
28. Kloiber S, Ising M, Reppermund S, et al. Overweight and Obesity Affect Treatment Response in Major Depression. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 62 (4): 321-326. DOI:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.10.001
29. Oud MJ, Meyboom-de Jong B. Somatic diseases in patients with schizophrenia in general practice: their prevalence and health care. BMC Fam Pract 2009; 10:32. DOI:10.1186/1471-2296-10-32
30. Annamalai A, Kosir U, Tek C. Prevalence of obesity and diabetes in patients with schizophrenia. World J Diabetes 2017: 390-396. DOI:10.4239/wjd.v8.i8.390
31. Dieset I, Andreassen OA, Haukvik UK. Somatic Comorbidity in Schizophrenia: Some Possible Biological Mechanisms Across the Life Span. Schizophr Bull;c42c(6):c1316-1319. DOI:10.1093/schbul/sbw028
32. Ryan MCM, Flanagan S, Kinsella U, et al. The effects of atypical antipsychotics on visceral fat distribution in first episode, drug-naive patients with schizophrenia. Life Sci 2004; 74 (16): 1999-2008. DOI:10.1016/j.lfs.2003.08.044
33. Ryan MCM, Collins P, Thakore JH. Impaired Fasting Glucose Tolerance in First-Episode, Drug-Naive Patients With Schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160 (2): 284-289. DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.2.284
34. Noto C, Ota VK, Santoro ML, et al. Depression, Cytokine, and Cytokine by Treatment Interactions Modulate Gene Expression in Antipsychotic Naïve First Episode Psychosis. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 53 (8): 5701-5709. DOI:10.1007/s12035-015-9489-3
35. Klöting N, Blüher M. Adipocyte dysfunction, inflammation and metabolic syndrome. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2014; 15 (4): 277-287. DOI: 10.1007/s11154-014-9301-0
36. Andreassen OA, Djurovic S, Thompson WK, et al. Improved Detection of Common Variants Associated with Schizophrenia by Leveraging Pleiotropy with Cardiovascular-Disease Risk Factors. Am J Hum Genet 2013; 92 (2): 197-209. DOI:10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.01.001
37. Cortese S, Moreira-Maia CR, St. Fleur D, et al. Association Between ADHD and Obesity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Am J Psychiatry 2016; 173 (1): 34-43. DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15020266
38. Mather AA, Cox BJ, Enns MW, et al. Associations of obesity with psychiatric disorders and suicidal behaviors in a nationally representative sample. J Psychosom Res 2009; 66 (4): 277-285. DOI:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.09.008
39. Bak M, Fransen A, Janssen J, et al. Almost All Antipsychotics Result in Weight Gain: A Meta-Analysis. PLoS One 2014; 9 (4). DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0094112
40. Allison D, Casey DE. Antipsychotic-induced weight gain: A review of the literature. J Clin Psychiatry 2001; 62 Suppl 7: 22-31.
41. Gafoor R, Booth HP, Gulliford MC. Antidepressant utilisation and incidence of weight gain during 10 years’ follow-up: population based cohort study. BMJ 2018 DOI:10.1136/bmj.k1951.
42. Uguz F, Sahingoz M, Gungor B, et al. Weight gain and associated factors in patients using newer antidepressant drugs. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2015; 37 (1): 46-48. DOI:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2014.10.011
43. Shi Z, Atlantis E, Taylor AW, et al. SSRI antidepressant use potentiates weight gain in the context of unhealthy lifestyles: results from a 4-year Australian follow-up study. BMJ Open 2017; 7 (8). DOI:10.1136/bmjopen-2017-016224
44. Darga L, Carroll-Michals L, Botsford S, et al. Fluoxetine’s effect on weight loss in obese subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 54 (2): 321-325. DOI:10.1093/ajcn/54.2.321
45. Domecq JP, Prutsky G, Leppin A, et al. Drugs Commonly Associated With Weight Change: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015 ; 100 (2): 363-370. DOI:10.1210/jc.2014-3421
46. Van Reedt Dortland AKB, Giltay EJ, Van Veen T, et al. Metabolic syndrome abnormalities are associated with severity of anxiety and depression and with tricyclic antidepressant use: Metabolic syndrome, anxiety and depression. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2009; 122 (1): 30-39. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2010.01565.x
47. Jain AK, Kaplan RA, Gadde KM, et al. Bupropion SR vs. Placebo for Weight Loss in Obese Patients with Depressive Symptoms. Obes Res 2002; 10 (10): 1049-1056. DOI:10.1038/oby.2002.142
48. Chengappa KNR, Chalasani L, Brar JS, et al. Changes in body weight and body mass index among psychiatric patients receiving lithium, valproate, or topiramate: An open-label, nonrandomized chart review. Clin Ther 2002; 24 (10): 1576-1584. DOI:10.1016/s0149-2918(02)80061-3
49. Zhuo C, Xu Y, Liu S, et al. Topiramate and Metformin Are Effective Add-On Treatments in Controlling Antipsychotic-Induced Weight Gain: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9: 1393. DOI:10.3389/fphar.2018.01393
50. Siskind D, Hahn M, Correll CU, et al. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists for antipsychotic-associated cardio-metabolic risk factors: A systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis. Diabetes Obes Metab 2019; 21 (2): 293-302. DOI:10.1111/dom.13522
51. Grilo CM, Masheb RM, Wilson GT, et al. Cognitive–behavioral therapy, behavioral weight loss, and sequential treatment for obese patients with binge-eating disorder: A randomized controlled trial. J Consult Clin Psychol 2011; 79 (5): 675-685. DOI:10.1037/a0025049
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