Abstract
Abstract
Acromegaly is a rare chronic disorder due to growth hormone (GH) - secreting pituitary tumor. The first-line treatment of acromegaly is a transsphenoidal adenomectomy. Surgical remission rates range from 30-50% for macroadenomas to 70-90% for microadenomas. Thus in patients with active acromegaly after surgery, medical treatment is recommended. Treatment outcome on medical therapy differs a lot depending on medications.
The aim of this paper is to summerize the current knowledge of factors predicting acromegaly remission after surgery and biochemical control on medical treatment.
Factors affecting treatment outcome, not related to the patient and the tumor, are neurosurgeon’s experience and visualisation tools used during surgery. Younger patients, as well as women tend to achieve acromegaly remission after surgery less often. Patients with lower GH and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) concentrations at diagnosis, in oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and postoperatively have a greater chance of surgical remission. However, some publications do not confirm that. Patients presenting with larger and more invasive tumors achieve surgical remisson less often. Hypointensive tumors on T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans are associated with better response to first-generation somatostatin receptor ligands (SRLs) and to pasireotide. Pathologic factors increasing the chance of acromegaly remission are densely granulated tumors, lower Ki-67 index, high expression of somatostatin receptors (SSTRs) and high expression of E-cadherin.
A thorough analysis of the abovementioned factors predicting the treatment outcome in acromegaly may be helpful for selecting the best treatment option for each patient.
References
References
1. Giustina A, Barkan A, Beckers A, Biermasz N, Biller BMK, Boguszewski C, et al. A Consensus on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Acromegaly Comorbidities: An Update. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2020;105(4).
2. Frara S, Rodriguez-Carnero G, Formenti AM, Martinez-Olmos MA, Giustina A, Casanueva FF. Pituitary Tumors Centers of Excellence. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2020;49(3):553-64.
3. Bolanowski M, Ruchała M, Zgliczyński W, Kos-Kudła B, Hubalewska-Dydejczyk A, Lewiński A. Diagnostics and treatment of acromegaly - updated recommendations of the Polish Society of Endocrinology. Endokrynol Pol. 2019;70(1):2-18.
4. Katznelson L, Laws ER, Jr., Melmed S, Molitch ME, Murad MH, Utz A, et al. Acromegaly: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014;99(11):3933-51.
5. Sandret L, Maison P, Chanson P. Place of cabergoline in acromegaly: a meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(5):1327-35.
6. Colao A, Bronstein MD, Freda P, Gu F, Shen CC, Gadelha M, et al. Pasireotide versus octreotide in acromegaly: a head-to-head superiority study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014;99(3):791-9.
7. Giustina A, Ambrosio MR, Beck Peccoz P, Bogazzi F, Cannavo S, De Marinis L, et al. Use of Pegvisomant in acromegaly. An Italian Society of Endocrinology guideline. J Endocrinol Invest. 2014;37(10):1017-30.
8. Guo X, Zhang R, Zhang D, Wang Z, Gao L, Yao Y, et al. Determinants of immediate and long-term remission after initial transsphenoidal surgery for acromegaly and outcome patterns during follow-up: a longitudinal study on 659 patients. J Neurosurg. 2022:1-11.
9. Araujo-Castro M, Pascual-Corrales E, Martínez-Vaello V, Baonza Saiz G, Quiñones de Silva J, Acitores Cancela A, et al. Predictive model of surgical remission in acromegaly: age, presurgical GH levels and Knosp grade as the best predictors of surgical remission. J Endocrinol Invest. 2021;44(1):183-93.
10. Durmuş ET, Atmaca A, Kefeli M, Çalışkan S, Mete O, Aslan K, et al. Age, GH/IGF-1 levels, tumor volume, T2 hypointensity, and tumor subtype rather than proliferation and invasion are all reliable predictors of biochemical response to somatostatin analogue therapy in patients with acromegaly: A clinicopathological study. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2022;67:101502.
11. Park SH, Ku CR, Moon JH, Kim EH, Kim SH, Lee EJ. Age- and Sex-Specific Differences as Predictors of Surgical Remission Among Patients With Acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2018;103(3):909-16.
12. Starke RM, Raper DM, Payne SC, Vance ML, Oldfield EH, Jane JA, Jr. Endoscopic vs microsurgical transsphenoidal surgery for acromegaly: outcomes in a concurrent series of patients using modern criteria for remission. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98(8):3190-8.
13. Taghvaei M, Sadrehosseini SM, Ardakani JB, Nakhjavani M, Zeinalizadeh M. Endoscopic Endonasal Approach to the Growth Hormone-Secreting Pituitary Adenomas: Endocrinologic Outcome in 68 Patients. World Neurosurg. 2018;117:e259-e68.
14. Minniti G, Jaffrain-Rea ML, Esposito V, Santoro A, Tamburrano G, Cantore G. Evolving criteria for post-operative biochemical remission of acromegaly: can we achieve a definitive cure? An audit of surgical results on a large series and a review of the literature. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2003;10(4):611-9.
15. Anthony JR, Alwahab UA, Kanakiya NK, Pontell DM, Veledar E, Oyesiku NM, et al. SIGNIFICANT ELEVATION OF GROWTH HORMONE LEVEL IMPACTS SURGICAL OUTCOMES IN ACROMEGALY. Endocr Pract. 2015;21(9):1001-9.
16. Sun H, Brzana J, Yedinak CG, Gultekin SH, Delashaw JB, Fleseriu M. Factors associated with biochemical remission after microscopic transsphenoidal surgery for acromegaly. J Neurol Surg B Skull Base. 2014;75(1):47-52.
17. Krzentowska-Korek A, Gołkowski F, Bałdys-Waligórska A, Hubalewska-Dydejczyk A. Efficacy and complications of neurosurgical treatment of acromegaly. Pituitary. 2011;14(2):157-62.
18. Bourdelot A, Coste J, Hazebroucq V, Gaillard S, Cazabat L, Bertagna X, et al. Clinical, hormonal and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) predictors of transsphenoidal surgery outcome in acromegaly. Eur J Endocrinol. 2004;150(6):763-71.
19. Demir O, Gedik V, Corapcioglu D, Emral R, Unlu MA, Erdogan MF, et al. Improvement in remission rates of the first operation in acromegalic patients. Turk Neurosurg. 2012;22(5):645-50.
20. Shirvani M, Motiei-Langroudi R. Transsphenoidal surgery for growth hormone-secreting pituitary adenomas in 130 patients. World Neurosurg. 2014;81(1):125-30.
21. Jane JA, Jr., Starke RM, Elzoghby MA, Reames DL, Payne SC, Thorner MO, et al. Endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery for acromegaly: remission using modern criteria, complications, and predictors of outcome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(9):2732-40.
22. Parkinson C, Ryder WD, Trainer PJ. The relationship between serum GH and serum IGF-I in acromegaly is gender-specific. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(11):5240-4.
23. Kim EH, Oh MC, Lee EJ, Kim SH. Predicting long-term remission by measuring immediate postoperative growth hormone levels and oral glucose tolerance test in acromegaly. Neurosurgery. 2012;70(5):1106-13; discussion 13.
24. Antunes X, Ventura N, Camilo GB, Wildemberg LE, Guasti A, Pereira PJM, et al. Predictors of surgical outcome and early criteria of remission in acromegaly. Endocrine. 2018;60(3):415-22.
25. Feelders RA, Bidlingmaier M, Strasburger CJ, Janssen JA, Uitterlinden P, Hofland LJ, et al. Postoperative evaluation of patients with acromegaly: clinical significance and timing of oral glucose tolerance testing and measurement of (free) insulin-like growth factor I, acid-labile subunit, and growth hormone-binding protein levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90(12):6480-9.
26. Rotermund R, Burkhardt T, Rohani Z, Jung R, Aberle J, Flitsch J. Value of early postoperative random growth hormone levels and nadir growth hormone levels after oral glucose tolerance testing in acromegaly. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2018;41:64-70.
27. Biermasz NR, Pereira AM, Smit JW, Romijn JA, Roelfsema F. Intravenous octreotide test predicts the long term outcome of treatment with octreotide-long-acting repeatable in active acromegaly. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2005;15(3):200-6.
28. Halperin I, Nicolau J, Casamitjana R, Sesmilo G, Serra-Prat M, Palomera E, et al. A short acute octreotide test for response prediction of long-term treatment with somatostatin analogues in acromegalic patients. Horm Metab Res. 2008;40(6):422-6.
29. Halah FP, Elias LL, Martinelli CE, Jr., Castro M, Moreira AC. [Usefulness of subcutaneous or long-acting octreotide as a predictive test and in the treatment of acromegaly]. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 2004;48(2):245-52.
30. Karavitaki N, Botusan I, Radian S, Coculescu M, Turner HE, Wass JA. The value of an acute octreotide suppression test in predicting long-term responses to depot somatostatin analogues in patients with active acromegaly. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2005;62(3):282-8.
31. Wang M, Shen M, He W, Yang Y, Liu W, Lu Y, et al. The value of an acute octreotide suppression test in predicting short-term efficacy of somatostatin analogues in acromegaly. Endocr J. 2016;63(9):819-34.
32. Hazer DB, Işık S, Berker D, Güler S, Gürlek A, Yücel T, et al. Treatment of acromegaly by endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery: surgical experience in 214 cases and cure rates according to current consensus criteria. J Neurosurg. 2013;119(6):1467-77.
33. Starnoni D, Daniel RT, Marino L, Pitteloud N, Levivier M, Messerer M. Surgical treatment of acromegaly according to the 2010 remission criteria: systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2016;158(11):2109-21.
34. Sarkar S, Rajaratnam S, Chacko G, Chacko AG. Endocrinological outcomes following endoscopic and microscopic transsphenoidal surgery in 113 patients with acromegaly. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2014;126:190-5.
35. Trepp R, Stettler C, Zwahlen M, Seiler R, Diem P, Christ ER. Treatment outcomes and mortality of 94 patients with acromegaly. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2005;147(3):243-51; discussion 50-1.
36. Tomasik A, Stelmachowska-Banaś M, Maksymowicz M, Czajka-Oraniec I, Raczkiewicz D, Zieliński G, et al. Clinical, hormonal and pathomorphological markers of somatotroph pituitary neuroendocrine tumors predicting the treatment outcome in acromegaly. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2022;13:957301.
37. Haliloglu O, Kuruoglu E, Ozkaya HM, Keskin FE, Gunaldi O, Oz B, et al. Multidisciplinary Approach for Acromegaly: A Single Tertiary Center's Experience. World Neurosurg. 2016;88:270-6.
38. Buliman A, Tataranu LG, Ciubotaru V, Cazac TL, Dumitrache C. The multimodal management of GH-secreting pituitary adenomas: predictive factors, strategies and outcomes. J Med Life. 2016;9(2):187-92.
39. Kim MS, Jang HD, Kim OL. Surgical results of growth hormone-secreting pituitary adenoma. J Korean Neurosurg Soc. 2009;45(5):271-4.
40. Potorac I, Petrossians P, Daly AF, Schillo F, Ben Slama C, Nagi S, et al. Pituitary MRI characteristics in 297 acromegaly patients based on T2-weighted sequences. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2015;22(2):169-77.
41. Potorac I, Petrossians P, Daly AF, Alexopoulou O, Borot S, Sahnoun-Fathallah M, et al. T2-weighted MRI signal predicts hormone and tumor responses to somatostatin analogs in acromegaly. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2016;23(11):871-81.
42. Coopmans EC, Schneiders JJ, El-Sayed N, Erler NS, Hofland LJ, van der Lely AJ, et al. T2-signal intensity, SSTR expression, and somatostatin analogs efficacy predict response to pasireotide in acromegaly. Eur J Endocrinol. 2020;182(6):595-605.
43. Dehghani M, Davoodi Z, Bidari F, Moghaddam AM, Khalili D, Bahrami-Motlagh H, et al. Association of different pathologic subtypes of growth hormone producing pituitary adenoma and remission in acromegaly patients: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Endocr Disord. 2021;21(1):186.
44. Kiseljak-Vassiliades K, Carlson NE, Borges MT, Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK, Lillehei KO, Kerr JM, et al. Growth hormone tumor histological subtypes predict response to surgical and medical therapy. Endocrine. 2015;49(1):231-41.
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1. Giustina A, Barkan A, Beckers A, Biermasz N, Biller BMK, Boguszewski C, et al. A Consensus on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Acromegaly Comorbidities: An Update. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2020;105(4).
2. Frara S, Rodriguez-Carnero G, Formenti AM, Martinez-Olmos MA, Giustina A, Casanueva FF. Pituitary Tumors Centers of Excellence. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2020;49(3):553-64.
3. Bolanowski M, Ruchała M, Zgliczyński W, Kos-Kudła B, Hubalewska-Dydejczyk A, Lewiński A. Diagnostics and treatment of acromegaly - updated recommendations of the Polish Society of Endocrinology. Endokrynol Pol. 2019;70(1):2-18.
4. Katznelson L, Laws ER, Jr., Melmed S, Molitch ME, Murad MH, Utz A, et al. Acromegaly: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014;99(11):3933-51.
5. Sandret L, Maison P, Chanson P. Place of cabergoline in acromegaly: a meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(5):1327-35.
6. Colao A, Bronstein MD, Freda P, Gu F, Shen CC, Gadelha M, et al. Pasireotide versus octreotide in acromegaly: a head-to-head superiority study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014;99(3):791-9.
7. Giustina A, Ambrosio MR, Beck Peccoz P, Bogazzi F, Cannavo S, De Marinis L, et al. Use of Pegvisomant in acromegaly. An Italian Society of Endocrinology guideline. J Endocrinol Invest. 2014;37(10):1017-30.
8. Guo X, Zhang R, Zhang D, Wang Z, Gao L, Yao Y, et al. Determinants of immediate and long-term remission after initial transsphenoidal surgery for acromegaly and outcome patterns during follow-up: a longitudinal study on 659 patients. J Neurosurg. 2022:1-11.
9. Araujo-Castro M, Pascual-Corrales E, Martínez-Vaello V, Baonza Saiz G, Quiñones de Silva J, Acitores Cancela A, et al. Predictive model of surgical remission in acromegaly: age, presurgical GH levels and Knosp grade as the best predictors of surgical remission. J Endocrinol Invest. 2021;44(1):183-93.
10. Durmuş ET, Atmaca A, Kefeli M, Çalışkan S, Mete O, Aslan K, et al. Age, GH/IGF-1 levels, tumor volume, T2 hypointensity, and tumor subtype rather than proliferation and invasion are all reliable predictors of biochemical response to somatostatin analogue therapy in patients with acromegaly: A clinicopathological study. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2022;67:101502.
11. Park SH, Ku CR, Moon JH, Kim EH, Kim SH, Lee EJ. Age- and Sex-Specific Differences as Predictors of Surgical Remission Among Patients With Acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2018;103(3):909-16.
12. Starke RM, Raper DM, Payne SC, Vance ML, Oldfield EH, Jane JA, Jr. Endoscopic vs microsurgical transsphenoidal surgery for acromegaly: outcomes in a concurrent series of patients using modern criteria for remission. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98(8):3190-8.
13. Taghvaei M, Sadrehosseini SM, Ardakani JB, Nakhjavani M, Zeinalizadeh M. Endoscopic Endonasal Approach to the Growth Hormone-Secreting Pituitary Adenomas: Endocrinologic Outcome in 68 Patients. World Neurosurg. 2018;117:e259-e68.
14. Minniti G, Jaffrain-Rea ML, Esposito V, Santoro A, Tamburrano G, Cantore G. Evolving criteria for post-operative biochemical remission of acromegaly: can we achieve a definitive cure? An audit of surgical results on a large series and a review of the literature. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2003;10(4):611-9.
15. Anthony JR, Alwahab UA, Kanakiya NK, Pontell DM, Veledar E, Oyesiku NM, et al. SIGNIFICANT ELEVATION OF GROWTH HORMONE LEVEL IMPACTS SURGICAL OUTCOMES IN ACROMEGALY. Endocr Pract. 2015;21(9):1001-9.
16. Sun H, Brzana J, Yedinak CG, Gultekin SH, Delashaw JB, Fleseriu M. Factors associated with biochemical remission after microscopic transsphenoidal surgery for acromegaly. J Neurol Surg B Skull Base. 2014;75(1):47-52.
17. Krzentowska-Korek A, Gołkowski F, Bałdys-Waligórska A, Hubalewska-Dydejczyk A. Efficacy and complications of neurosurgical treatment of acromegaly. Pituitary. 2011;14(2):157-62.
18. Bourdelot A, Coste J, Hazebroucq V, Gaillard S, Cazabat L, Bertagna X, et al. Clinical, hormonal and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) predictors of transsphenoidal surgery outcome in acromegaly. Eur J Endocrinol. 2004;150(6):763-71.
19. Demir O, Gedik V, Corapcioglu D, Emral R, Unlu MA, Erdogan MF, et al. Improvement in remission rates of the first operation in acromegalic patients. Turk Neurosurg. 2012;22(5):645-50.
20. Shirvani M, Motiei-Langroudi R. Transsphenoidal surgery for growth hormone-secreting pituitary adenomas in 130 patients. World Neurosurg. 2014;81(1):125-30.
21. Jane JA, Jr., Starke RM, Elzoghby MA, Reames DL, Payne SC, Thorner MO, et al. Endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery for acromegaly: remission using modern criteria, complications, and predictors of outcome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(9):2732-40.
22. Parkinson C, Ryder WD, Trainer PJ. The relationship between serum GH and serum IGF-I in acromegaly is gender-specific. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(11):5240-4.
23. Kim EH, Oh MC, Lee EJ, Kim SH. Predicting long-term remission by measuring immediate postoperative growth hormone levels and oral glucose tolerance test in acromegaly. Neurosurgery. 2012;70(5):1106-13; discussion 13.
24. Antunes X, Ventura N, Camilo GB, Wildemberg LE, Guasti A, Pereira PJM, et al. Predictors of surgical outcome and early criteria of remission in acromegaly. Endocrine. 2018;60(3):415-22.
25. Feelders RA, Bidlingmaier M, Strasburger CJ, Janssen JA, Uitterlinden P, Hofland LJ, et al. Postoperative evaluation of patients with acromegaly: clinical significance and timing of oral glucose tolerance testing and measurement of (free) insulin-like growth factor I, acid-labile subunit, and growth hormone-binding protein levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90(12):6480-9.
26. Rotermund R, Burkhardt T, Rohani Z, Jung R, Aberle J, Flitsch J. Value of early postoperative random growth hormone levels and nadir growth hormone levels after oral glucose tolerance testing in acromegaly. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2018;41:64-70.
27. Biermasz NR, Pereira AM, Smit JW, Romijn JA, Roelfsema F. Intravenous octreotide test predicts the long term outcome of treatment with octreotide-long-acting repeatable in active acromegaly. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2005;15(3):200-6.
28. Halperin I, Nicolau J, Casamitjana R, Sesmilo G, Serra-Prat M, Palomera E, et al. A short acute octreotide test for response prediction of long-term treatment with somatostatin analogues in acromegalic patients. Horm Metab Res. 2008;40(6):422-6.
29. Halah FP, Elias LL, Martinelli CE, Jr., Castro M, Moreira AC. [Usefulness of subcutaneous or long-acting octreotide as a predictive test and in the treatment of acromegaly]. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 2004;48(2):245-52.
30. Karavitaki N, Botusan I, Radian S, Coculescu M, Turner HE, Wass JA. The value of an acute octreotide suppression test in predicting long-term responses to depot somatostatin analogues in patients with active acromegaly. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2005;62(3):282-8.
31. Wang M, Shen M, He W, Yang Y, Liu W, Lu Y, et al. The value of an acute octreotide suppression test in predicting short-term efficacy of somatostatin analogues in acromegaly. Endocr J. 2016;63(9):819-34.
32. Hazer DB, Işık S, Berker D, Güler S, Gürlek A, Yücel T, et al. Treatment of acromegaly by endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery: surgical experience in 214 cases and cure rates according to current consensus criteria. J Neurosurg. 2013;119(6):1467-77.
33. Starnoni D, Daniel RT, Marino L, Pitteloud N, Levivier M, Messerer M. Surgical treatment of acromegaly according to the 2010 remission criteria: systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2016;158(11):2109-21.
34. Sarkar S, Rajaratnam S, Chacko G, Chacko AG. Endocrinological outcomes following endoscopic and microscopic transsphenoidal surgery in 113 patients with acromegaly. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2014;126:190-5.
35. Trepp R, Stettler C, Zwahlen M, Seiler R, Diem P, Christ ER. Treatment outcomes and mortality of 94 patients with acromegaly. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2005;147(3):243-51; discussion 50-1.
36. Tomasik A, Stelmachowska-Banaś M, Maksymowicz M, Czajka-Oraniec I, Raczkiewicz D, Zieliński G, et al. Clinical, hormonal and pathomorphological markers of somatotroph pituitary neuroendocrine tumors predicting the treatment outcome in acromegaly. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2022;13:957301.
37. Haliloglu O, Kuruoglu E, Ozkaya HM, Keskin FE, Gunaldi O, Oz B, et al. Multidisciplinary Approach for Acromegaly: A Single Tertiary Center's Experience. World Neurosurg. 2016;88:270-6.
38. Buliman A, Tataranu LG, Ciubotaru V, Cazac TL, Dumitrache C. The multimodal management of GH-secreting pituitary adenomas: predictive factors, strategies and outcomes. J Med Life. 2016;9(2):187-92.
39. Kim MS, Jang HD, Kim OL. Surgical results of growth hormone-secreting pituitary adenoma. J Korean Neurosurg Soc. 2009;45(5):271-4.
40. Potorac I, Petrossians P, Daly AF, Schillo F, Ben Slama C, Nagi S, et al. Pituitary MRI characteristics in 297 acromegaly patients based on T2-weighted sequences. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2015;22(2):169-77.
41. Potorac I, Petrossians P, Daly AF, Alexopoulou O, Borot S, Sahnoun-Fathallah M, et al. T2-weighted MRI signal predicts hormone and tumor responses to somatostatin analogs in acromegaly. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2016;23(11):871-81.
42. Coopmans EC, Schneiders JJ, El-Sayed N, Erler NS, Hofland LJ, van der Lely AJ, et al. T2-signal intensity, SSTR expression, and somatostatin analogs efficacy predict response to pasireotide in acromegaly. Eur J Endocrinol. 2020;182(6):595-605.
43. Dehghani M, Davoodi Z, Bidari F, Moghaddam AM, Khalili D, Bahrami-Motlagh H, et al. Association of different pathologic subtypes of growth hormone producing pituitary adenoma and remission in acromegaly patients: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Endocr Disord. 2021;21(1):186.
44. Kiseljak-Vassiliades K, Carlson NE, Borges MT, Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK, Lillehei KO, Kerr JM, et al. Growth hormone tumor histological subtypes predict response to surgical and medical therapy. Endocrine. 2015;49(1):231-41.
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